Electronic employee selection systems and methods

ABSTRACT

An automated employee selection system can use a variety of techniques to provide information for assisting in selection of employees. For example, pre-hire and post-hire information can be collected electronically and used to build an artificial-intelligence based model. The model can then be used to predict a desired job performance criterion (e.g., tenure, number of accidents, sales level, or the like) for new applicants. A wide variety of features can be supported, such as electronic reporting. Pre-hire information identified as ineffective can be removed from a collected pre-hire information. For example, ineffective questions can be identified and removed from a job application. New items can be added and their effectiveness tested. As a result, a system can exhibit adaptive learning and maintain or increase effectiveness even under changing conditions.

RELATED APPLICATION DATA

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/922,197, “Electronic Employee Selection Systems And Methods,” filedAug. 2, 2001, which is hereby incorporated by reference and which claimsthe benefit of Becker et al., U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.60/223,289, “Automated Electronic Employee Selection Process And HiringRecommendation System Using On-Line Criterion Validation DataCollection, Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Adaptive Learning AndElectronic Results Reporting,” filed Aug. 3, 2000, and this applicationis also a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/921,993,“Development Of Electronic Employee Selection Systems And Methods,”filed Aug. 2, 2001, which is hereby incorporated by reference and whichclaims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.60/223,289, “Automated Electronic Employee Selection Process And HiringRecommendation System Using On-Line Criterion Validation DataCollection, Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Adaptive Learning AndElectronic Results Reporting,” filed Aug. 3, 2000.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The invention relates to automated employee selection.

COPYRIGHT AUTHORIZATION

A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains materialthat is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has noobjection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent documentor the patent disclosure, as it appears in the Patent and TrademarkOffice patent file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyrightrights whatsoever.

BACKGROUND

Organizations can spend considerable time and effort identifying andhiring suitable employees. Good help is hard to find. Despite their bestefforts, organizations still often meet with failure and simply accepthigh turnover and poor employee performance.

A variety of approaches to finding and hiring employees have been tried.A well-known tool for employee selection is the job application. Jobapplications help identify a job applicant's qualifications, such aseducational background, job history, skills, and experience.

An employer typically collects a set of job applications from applicantswho drop by an employer work site or appear at a job fair. Someone inthe organization then reviews the applications to determine whichapplicants merit further investigation. Then, a job interview, a test,or some other review process is sometimes used to further limit theapplicant pool.

With the advent of the electronic age, job applications can be completedelectronically. In this way, the delays associated with processing papercan be minimized. However, even electronically-completed jobapplications can be of questionable merit and still require considerableeffort on the part of the hiring organization to review them. A betterway of selecting employees is still needed.

SUMMARY

Large organizations can bring considerable resources to bear on the taskof developing a job application. For example, a large retail chain mightconsult with an industrial psychologist to study the job environment anddevelop a set of questions that ostensibly predict whether an individualwill excel in the environment.

However, such an approach is fraught with inaccuracy and subjectivity;further, the psychologist's analysis depends on conditions that maychange over time. For example, even if the psychologist identifiesappropriate factors for testing, an applicant might slant answers on theapplication based on what the applicant perceives is expected. Further,two psychologists might come up with two completely different sets offactors. And, finally, as the job conditions and applicant pool changesover time, the factors may become less effective or ineffective.

To determine whether a job application is effective, a study can beconducted to verify whether the factors chosen by the psychologist havebeen successful in identifying suitable applicants. However, such astudy requires even more effort in addition to the considerable effortalready invested in developing the application. So, such a studytypically is not conducted until managers in the organization alreadyknow that the application is ineffective or out of date.

The disclosed embodiments include various systems and methods related toautomated employee selection. For example, various techniques can beused to automate the job application and employee selection process.

In one aspect of an embodiment, answers to job application questions canbe collected directly from the applicant via an electronic device. Basedon correlations of the answers with answers to questions by otherindividuals for which post-hire information has been collected, apost-hire outcome is predicted.

In another aspect of an embodiment, an artificial-intelligence techniqueis used. For example, a neural network or a fuzzy logic system can beused to build a model that predicts a post-hire outcome. Proposed modelsof different types can be constructed and tested to identify a superiormodel.

When constructing a model, an information-theory-based feature selectiontechnique can be used to reduce the number of inputs, therebyfacilitating more efficient model construction.

Items identified as ineffective predictors can be removed from the jobapplication. Information collected based on the new job application canbe used to build a refined model. In this way, a system can exhibitadaptive learning and maintain its effectiveness even if conditionschange over time. Content can be rotated or otherwise modified so thejob application changes and maintains its effectiveness over time.Evolution toward higher predictive accuracy for employee selection canbe achieved.

A sample size monitor can identify when sufficient information has beencollected electronically to build a refined model. In this way,short-cycle criterion validation and performance-driven item rotationcan be supported.

Outcomes can be predicted for any of a wide variety of parameters and beprovided in various formats. For example, tenure, number of accidents,sales level, whether the employee will be involuntarily terminated,whether the employee will be eligible for rehire upon termination andother measures of employee effectiveness can be predicted. Theprediction can be provided in a variety of forms, such as, for example,in the form of a predicted value, a predicted rank, a predicted range,or a predicted probability that an individual will belong to a group.

Predictions can be provided by electronic means. For example, uponanalysis of a job applicant's answers, an email or fax can be sent to ahiring manager indicating a favorable recommendation regarding theapplicant. In this way, real-time processing of a job application toprovide a recommendation can be supported.

Information from various predictors can be combined to provide aparticularly effective prediction. For example, a prediction can bebased at least on whether (or the likelihood) the applicant will beinvoluntarily terminated and whether (or the likelihood) the applicantwill be eligible for rehire upon termination. Based on whether theindividual is predicted to both voluntarily quit and be eligible forrehire upon termination, an accurate measure of the predictedsuitability of an applicant can be provided.

Post-hire information can be based on payroll information. For example,termination status and eligibility for rehire information can beidentified by examining payroll records. The payroll information can beprovided electronically to facilitate a high-level of accurate post-hireinformation collection.

Further, reports can be provided to indicate a wide-variety ofparameters, such as applicant flow, effectiveness of the system, andothers.

Although the described technologies can continue to use the services ofan industrial psychologist, relationships between pre-hire datapredictors and desired job performance criteria can be discovered andused without regard to whether the psychologist would predict such arelationship. A system using the described technologies can findrelationships in data that may elude a human researcher.

Additional features and advantages of the various embodiments will bemade apparent from the following detailed description of illustratedembodiments, which proceeds with reference to the accompanying drawings.

The present invention includes all novel and nonobvious features, methodsteps, and acts alone and in various combinations and sub-combinationswith one another as set forth in the claims below. The present inventionis not limited to a particular combination or sub-combination.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing exemplary pre-hire informationcollection.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing a predictive model based on pre-hireand post-hire information.

FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing ineffective predictors based onpre-hire and post-hire information.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing refinement of a model over time.

FIG. 5 is a flowchart showing a method for refining a model over time.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing an exemplary system for providingemployee suitability recommendations.

FIG. 7 is a flowchart illustrating an exemplary method for providingemployee suitability recommendations.

FIG. 8 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary architecture forproviding employee suitability recommendations.

FIG. 9 is a flowchart illustrating an exemplary method for building apredictive model.

FIG. 10 is a block diagram showing an exemplary predictive model.

FIG. 11 is a block diagram showing an exemplary refined predictivemodel.

FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating integration of payrollinformation into a predictive system.

FIG. 13 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary combination ofelements into a system.

FIGS. 14A-14D are block diagrams illustrating an exemplary process forimplementing automated employee selection.

FIG. 15 is a process flow diagram illustrating an exemplary process foran employment suitability prediction system.

FIG. 16 is a graph illustrating exemplary effectiveness of a system overtime.

FIG. 17 is a graph illustrating entropy.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Overview of the Technologies

On a general level, the described technologies can include collectinginformation and building a model based on the information. Such a modelcan then be used to generate a prediction for one or more desired jobperformance-related criteria. The prediction can be the basis of ahiring recommendation or other employee selection information.

Pre-hire information includes any information collected about anindividual before the individual (e.g., a job applicant or othercandidate) is hired. FIG. 1 shows a variety of sources 102 forcollecting pre-hire information 112. The pre-hire information 112 can bestored in electronic (e.g., digital) form in a computer-readable medium(e.g., RAM, ROM, magnetic disk, CD-ROM, CD-R, DVD-ROM, and the like).Possible sources for pre-hire information 112 include a paper-basedsource 122, an electronic device 124, a third party service 126, or someother source 128. For example, pre-hire information can include anapplicant's answers to an on-line employment application collected at aremote site, such as at an electronic device located in a kiosk at aprospective employer's work site. Further information and examples aredescribed in “Example 2—Collecting Information,” below.

Post-hire information includes any information collected about anindividual (e.g., an employee) after the individual is hired, includinginformation collected while the employee is employed or after anemployee is fired, laid off, or quits. Post-hire information cansimilarly be collected from a wide variety of sources. Post-hireinformation can include information about the employee's terminationdate. Further examples are described in “Example 2—CollectingInformation,” below.

As shown in FIG. 2, after pre-hire information 212 and post-hireinformation 222 have been collected, a predictive model 232 can bebuilt. As described in more detail below, a predictive model 232 cantake a variety of forms, including artificial intelligence-based models.The predictive model can generate one or more predictions based onpre-hire information inputs. Thus, the model can be used to generatepredictions for job applicants. In practice, the model can beimplemented as computer-executable code stored in a computer-readablemedium.

As shown in FIG. 3, after pre-hire information 312 and post-hireinformation 322 have been collected, ineffective predictors 332 can beidentified. Such ineffective predictors can be ignored when constructinga model (e.g., the model 232 of FIG. 2). In this way, the complexity ofthe model can be reduced, and the efficiency of the model constructionprocess can be improved.

Further, the same ineffective predictors 332 or similar ineffectivepredictors can be removed from pre-hire content (e.g., ineffectivequestions can be removed from a job application). Identification ofineffective predictors can be achieved via software using a variety oftechniques; examples are described below.

As shown in FIG. 4, using various features described herein, apredictive model M₁ (412) based on pre-hire information PR₁ (414) andpost-hire information PO₁ (416) can be refined. For example, informationcollection techniques can be refined by removing pre-hire contentidentified as ineffective. Further, additional pre-hire content might beadded (e.g., a new set of questions can be added to a job application).

As a result, new pre-hire information PR₂ (424) based on the refinedpre-hire content can be collected. Corresponding post-hire informationPO₂ (426) can be collected. Based on the information, a refined model M₂(422) can be constructed.

The refinement process can be continued. For example, the effectivenessof the additional pre-hire content can be determined. Thus, refinementcan continue a number of times over time, resulting in pre-hireinformation PR_(n) (444), post-hire information PO_(n) (446), and arefined model M_(n) (442).

FIG. 5 shows an exemplary method for refining a predictive model. At522, pre-hire information for applicants is collected based on pre-hirecontent (e.g., predictors such as questions on an employment applicationor predictors collected from other sources). At 532, post-hireinformation for the applicants is collected. At 542 a predictive modelis constructed. The model can be deployed and model output used forhiring recommendations. At 552, the pre-hire content can be refined(e.g., one or more ineffective questions can be removed and one or newones can be added). Then, additional pre-hire information can becollected at 522 (e.g., based on the refined pre-hire content).Eventually, a refined model can be generated.

The various models shown can be used as a basis for providing employeehiring recommendations. The architecture used to implement an electronicsystem providing such employee hiring recommendations can vary fromsimple to complex. FIG. 6 shows an overview of an exemplary system 602.In the example, a computer-based electronic device 612 housed in a kioskis situated in a work site (e.g., a retail store) and presents a jobapplication to a job applicant via an electronic display 614. Theelectronic device then sends the applicant's answers to a central server622, which can also receive information from other electronic devices,such as the electronic device 624.

The server 622 can save the answers to a database 626 and immediatelyapply a predictive model to the answers to generate one or morepredictions of employment performance for the applicant and a hiringrecommendation based on the predictions. Thus, real-time processing ofincoming data can be accomplished.

The hiring recommendation can be immediately sent to a hiring manager'scomputer 642 via a network 652 (e.g., in an email via the Internet).Thus, real-time reporting based on incoming data can be accomplished.Although often less desirable, delayed processing is also possible.Thus, alternatively, the system can, for example, queue information andsend it out in batches (e.g., in a set of n applicants or every n days)as desired.

Various combinations and sub-combinations of the techniques below can beapplied to any of the above examples.

EXAMPLE 1 Exemplary System and Method

FIG. 7 is a flowchart showing an exemplary method 702 for providingautomated employee selection. At 712, questions are asked of anapplicant such as via an electronic device. The answers are collected at722. Based on the answers, a prediction is generated at 732. Then, theresults are provided at 742.

FIG. 8 is a block diagram an exemplary system 802 for providing employeeselection. An electronic data interrogator 812 is operable to present afirst set of a plurality of questions to an individual. An electronicanswer capturer 822 is operable to electronically store the individual'sresponses to at least a selected plurality of the first set of questionspresented to the individual.

An electronic applicant predictor 832 is responsive to the storedanswers and is operable to predict at least one post-hire outcome if theindividual were to be employed by the employer. The applicant predictor832 can provide a prediction of the outcome based on correlations of thestored answers with answers to sets of the same questions by otherindividuals for which post-hire information has been collected. Thepredictor 832 can include a model constructed according to techniquesdescribed herein, such as in “Example 3—Building a Predictive Model” andothers.

An electronic results provider 842 can provide an output indicating theoutcome to assist in determining the suitability of the individual foremployment by an employer.

Some actions or elements might be performed or implemented by differentparties and are therefore not necessarily included in a particularmethod or system. For example, collection of data might be performed byone organization, and another might generate the prediction.

EXAMPLE 2 Collecting Information

As described with reference to FIG. 1 above, pre-hire information can bea variety of information collected from a variety of sources. Onepossible source for pre-hire information is a paper-based collectionsource 122, such as a paper-based job application or test. Paper-basedsources can be converted into electronic form by manual data entry orscanning.

Another possible source is an electronic device 124. Such an electronicdevice can, for example, be a computer, a computer-based kiosk, a screenphone, a telephone, or a biometric device. For example, pre-hire content(e.g., a job application or skills test) can be presented to anapplicant, who responds (e.g., answers questions) directly on theelectronic device 124. Questions can be logically connected so that theyare presented only if appropriate (e.g., if the employee answersaffirmative to a question about termination, the device can then inquireas to the reason for termination).

Still another possible source for pre-hire information 112 is from athird party service 126. For example, credit reporting agencies,background check services, and other services can provide informationeither manually or over an online connection.

Yet another possible source for pre-hire information 112 is from anothersource 128. For example, later-developed technologies can beincorporated.

Any of the pre-hire information can be collected from a remote location(e.g., at a work site or from the applicant's home). The information 112can then be stored in a central location, such as at an organization'sinformation technology center or at an employment recommendationservice's information technology center or a data warehouse.

The pre-hire information 112 can be collected for an applicant when theapplicant applies for a job or other times. For example, data may beobtained concerning individuals who have yet to apply for employment,such as from an employee job search web site or firm. The response datacan then be used to predict the probable job effectiveness of anapplicant and the results of each prediction. Probable job effectivenesscan be described, for example in terms of desired criteria and caninclude behavioral predictions.

The electronic device can be placed online in a variety of ways. Forexample, an external telecommunications data link can be used to uploadapplicant responses to a host computer and download changes in pre-hirecontent, administration instructions, data handling measures, and otheradministration functions.

A modem connection can be used to connect via a telephone network to ahost computer (e.g., central server), or a URL can be used to establisha web connection (e.g., via the Internet, an intranet, an extranet, andthe like). Another network type (e.g., satellite) can be used. In thisway, real-time data collection can be implemented.

The electronic device 124 can allow an applicant to enter text ornumeric data or select from multiple response options, or register avoice or other biophysical response to a machine administered stimulus.The electronic device 124 can be programmable so that the presentedcontent can be modified, and the presented content can be drawn from aremote source. Such content can include text-based questionnaires,multi-media stimuli, and biophysical stimuli.

The electronic device 124 can, for example, include computer-readablemedia serving as memory for storing pre-hire content and administrationlogic as well as the applicant's response data. Alternatively, suchcontent, logic, and responses can be stored remotely.

The device 124, as other examples, can include a standard computerinterface (e.g., display, keyboard, and a pointing device), hand-helddigital telecommunication devices, digitally enabled telephone devices,touch-screen kiosk delivery systems, multi-purpose electronictransaction processors such as Automated Teller Machines, travelreservation machines, electronic gaming machines, and biophysicalapparatus such as virtual reality human interface equipment andbiomedicial devices.

Further, pre-hire information can include geographic elements, allowinggeographical specialization (e.g., by region, county, state, country, orthe like).

Post-hire information can similarly be collected in a variety of waysfrom a variety of sources, including evaluations, terminationinformation, supervisor ratings, payroll information, and directmeasures such as sales or units produced, number of accidents, and thelike.

For example, after an employee has been on the job for a sufficienttime, an evaluation can be made. Alternatively, upon termination of theemployee, the employee's supervisor can rate the person's performance inan exit evaluation or the employee can complete an employee exitinterview. Such collection can be accomplished by receiving answers toquestions on an electronic device, such as the device 124 of FIG. 1.

Other available measures, such as length of service (e.g., tenure),sales, unit production, attendance, misconduct, number of accidents,eligibility for rehire after termination, and whether the employee wasinvoluntarily terminated may also be collected. Generally, post-hireinformation is collected for post-hire outcomes for which a predictionis desired. Such outcomes can, for example, include performance or jobeffectiveness measures concurrent with employment.

EXAMPLE 3 Building a Predictive Model

A variety of techniques can be used to build one or more predictivemodels for predicting post-hire outcomes for a job applicant. The modelcan take one or more inputs (e.g., pre-hire information) and generatesone or more outputs (e.g., predicted post-hire outcomes). For example, amodel can be based on artificial intelligence, such as a neural network,a structural equation, an information theoretical model, a fuzzy logicmodel, or a neuro-fuzzy model.

FIG. 9 shows an exemplary method 902 for building a predictive model. At912, information relating to inputs (e.g., pre-hire information) iscollected. At 914, information relating to outputs to be predicted(e.g., post-hire information) is collected. Based on the inputs andoutputs to be predicted, the model is built at 916.

When building a model, a variety of various proposed models can beevaluated, and one(s) exhibiting superior performance can be chosen. Forexample, various types of feed-forward neural networks (e.g., backpropagation, conjugate gradients, quasi-Newton, Levenberg-Marquardt,quick propagation, delta-bar-delta, linear, radial basis function,generalized regression network [e.g., linear], and the like) can bebuilt based on collected pre- and post-hire data and a superior oneidentified and chosen. The proposed models can also be of differentarchitectures (e.g., different number of layers or nodes in a layer). Itis expected that other types of neural network types will be developedin the future, and they also can be used.

Similar techniques can be used for types of models other than neuralnetworks. In some cases, trial and error will reveal which type of modelis suitable for use. The advice of an industrial psychologist can alsobe helpful to determine any probable interaction effects or othercharacteristics that can be accounted for when constructing proposedmodels.

Various commercially-available off-the-shelf software can be used forconstructing artificial intelligence-based models of different types andarchitectures. For example, NEURALWORKS software (e.g., NEURALWORKSProfessional II/Plus) marketed by NeuralWare of Carnegie, Pa. andSTATISTICA Neural Networks software marketed by StatSoft of Tulsa, Okla.can be used. Any number of other methods for building the model can beused.

A model can have multiple outputs or a single output. Further, multiplemodels can be built to produce multiple predictions, such as predictionsof multiple job performance criteria. Also, a model can be built to begeographically specialized by building it based on information comingfrom a particular region, county, state, country, or the like.

Occupationally-specialized or education level-specialized models canalso be constructed by limiting the data used to build the model toemployees of a particular occupation or educational level.

One possible way of building a neural network is to divide the inputdata into three sets: a training set, a test set, and a hold-out set.The training set is used to train the model, and the test set is used totest the model and possibly further adjust it. Finally, the hold-out setis used as a measure of the model's ability to generalize learnedpattern information to new data such as will be encountered with themodel begins processing new applicants. For example, a coefficient(e.g., 0.43) can be calculated to indicate whether the model is validbased on its ability to predict values of the hold-out set. Variousphenomenon related to neural networks, such as over-training can beaddressed by determining at what point during training the neuralnetwork indicates best performance (e.g., via a test set).

Identifying a superior model out of proposed models can be achieved byranking the models (e.g., by measuring a validity coefficient for ahold-out set of data). During the ranking process, particular types(e.g., neural network or fuzzy logic) or architectures (e.g., number ofhidden nodes) may emerge as fruitful for further exploration viaconstruction of other, similar proposed models.

EXAMPLE 4 Identifying Ineffective Predictors

Ineffective (e.g., non-predictive or low-predictive) predictors can beidentified. For example, using an information-theory-based techniquecalled “information transfer,” pre-hire content can be identified asineffective. Generally, an ineffective predictor is a predictor thatdoes not serve to effectively predict a desired job performancecriterion. For example, answers to a particular question may exhibit arandom relationship to a criterion and simply serve as noise in data.

One technique for identifying ineffective predictors is to considervarious sets of permutations of predictive items (e.g., answers to jobapplication questions A, B, C, A & B, A & C, B & C, and A & B & C) andevaluate whether the permutation set is effective. If an item is not inany set of effective predictors, the item is identified as ineffective.It is possible that while an item alone is ineffective, it is effectivein combination with one or more other items. Additional features ofinformation transfer-based techniques are described in greater detailbelow.

After predictors are identified as ineffective, various actions can betaken, such as omitting them when constructing a model or removingcorresponding questions from a job application. Or, an indication can beprovided that information relating to such predictors no longer need becollected.

EXAMPLE 5 Building a Model Based on Having Identified IneffectivePredictors

Predictors identified as ineffective can be ignored when building amodel. In other words, one part of the model-building process can bechoosing inputs for the model based on whether the inputs are effective.

Reducing the number of inputs can reduce the complexity of the model andincrease the accuracy of the model. Thus, a more efficient and effectivemodel-building process can be achieved.

EXAMPLE 6 Exemplary Model

FIG. 10 shows a simple exemplary predictive model 1002 with predictiveinputs IN₁, IN₂, IN₃, IN₄, and IN₅. Various weights a₁, a₂, a₃, a₄, anda₅ can be calculated during model training (e.g., via back-propagation).The inputs are used in combination with the weights to generate apredicted value, OUT₁. For example, the inputs might be answers toquestions on a job application, and the predicted value might beexpected job tenure.

A predictive model can estimate specific on-the-job behaviors that havebeen described for validation analysis in mathematical terms. Although atwo-layer model is shown, other numbers of layers can be used. Inaddition, various other arrangements involving weights and combinationsof the elements can be used. In fact, any number of other arrangementsare possible.

EXAMPLE 7 Refining a Model

Predictors identified as ineffective can be removed from pre-hirecontent. For example, if a question on a job application is found to bean ineffective predictor for desired job performance criteria, thequestion can be removed from the job application. Additional questionscan be added (these, too, can be evaluated and possibly removed later).

New pre-hire information can be collected based on the refined pre-hirecontent. Then corresponding new post-hire information can be collected.Based on the new information, a refined model can be built. Such anarrangement is sometimes called “performance-driven systematic rotationof pre-hire content.”

In this way, questions having little or no value can be removed from anemployment application, resulting in a shorter but more effectiveapplication. Predictive content can be identified by placing a questioninto the pool of questions and monitoring whether it is identified asineffective when a subsequent model is constructed.

Model refinement can also be achieved through increased sample size,improvements to model architecture, changes in the model paradigm, andother techniques.

A system using the described refinement process can be said to exhibitadaptive learning. One advantage to such an arrangement is that thesystem can adapt to changing conditions such as changing applicantdemographics, a changing economy, a changing job market, changes in jobcontent, or changes to measures of job effectiveness.

EXAMPLE 8 Exemplary Refined Model

FIG. 11 shows a simple exemplary refined predictive model 1102. In theexample, it was determined that IN₄ and IN₅ were ineffective predictors,so the content (e.g., question) related to IN₄ and IN₅ was removed fromthe corresponding employment application. Based on the finding that IN₄and IN₅ were not effective predictors, they were not included in themodel deployed at that time. A set of new questions was added to theemployment application.

When selecting new questions, it may be advantageous to employ theservices of an industrial psychologist who can evaluate the job anddetermine appropriate job skills. The psychologist can then determine anappropriate question to be asked to identify a person who will fit thejob.

Subsequently, after pre-hire and post-hire information for a number ofemployees was collected, the new model 1102 was generated from thecollected information. Two of the new questions were found to beeffective predictors, so they was included in the refined model as IN₈and IN₉. IN₄ and IN₅ do not appear because they had been earlier foundto be ineffective predictors.

EXAMPLE 9 Prediction Types

A predictive model can generate a variety of prediction types. Forexample, a single value (e.g., “36 months” as a likely term ofemployment) can be generated. Or, a range of values (e.g., “36-42months” as a likely range of employment term) can be generated. Or, arank (e.g., “7 out of 52” as how this applicant ranks in tenure ascompared to 52 other applicants) can be generated.

Further, probabilities can be generated instead of or in addition to theabove types. For example, a probability that an individual will be in acertain range can be generated (e.g., “70%—36 or more months”). Or, aprobability of a certain value can be generated (“5%—0 accidents”). Or,probability of membership in a group can be generated (e.g., “75%involuntarily terminated”).

Various combinations and permutations of the above are also possible.Values can be whatever is appropriate for the particular arrangement.

EXAMPLE 10 Predicted Outcomes

Predicted post-hire outcomes can be any of a number of metrics. Forexample, number of accidents, sales level, eligibility for rehire,voluntary termination, and tenure can be predicted. There can be variousmodels (e.g., one for each of the measurements) or one model can predictmore than one. The predicted outcomes can be job performance criteriaused when making a hiring recommendation.

EXAMPLE 11 Hiring Recommendation

After determining the suitability of the individual for employment bythe employer, based on one or more predictions generated by one or moremodels, a hiring recommendation can be made. The recommendation can beprovided by software.

The recommendation can include an estimate of future behavior andresults can be reported in behavioral terms. Alternatively, an employermight indicate the relative importance of predicted outcome values, suchas a specific set of job performance criteria. Such information can becombined with generated predicted outcomes to generate an overall score.Applicants having a score over a particular threshold, for example, canbe identified as favorable candidates. Further evaluation (e.g., askills test or interview) may or may not be appropriate.

EXAMPLE 12 Payroll-Based Information Collection

A problem can arise when collecting post-hire information. For example,it may be difficult to achieve high compliance rates for exitinterviews. Also, collection of information relating to terminationdates and reasons for termination may be sporadic.

Post-hire information can be generated by examining payroll information.For example, a system can track whether an employee has been droppedfrom the payroll. Such an event typically indicates that the employeehas been terminated. Thus, the employee's tenure can be determined bycomparing the termination date with the employee's hire date. Further,available payroll information might indicate whether an employee wasvoluntarily or involuntarily terminated and whether or not the employeeis eligible for rehire and why the termination occurred. Still further,the payroll information can indicate a job change (e.g., a promotion).

Thus, much post-hire information can be commonly collected based onpayroll information, and a higher sample size can be achieved. Anexemplary arrangement 1202 for collecting such information is shown inFIG. 12. In the example, the payroll information 1212 is accessible by apayroll server 1222. Communication with the payroll server 1222 can beachieved over a network 1242 (e.g., via the Internet or anothernetwork). The server 1242 receives information from the payroll server1222 via the network 1232 (e.g., via any number of protocols, such asFTP, email, and the like). The information is then stored in thepost-hire information database 1252. For example, payroll informationcan be scheduled for automatic periodic sending or may be sent uponinitiation by an operator.

Although an online arrangement is shown, the information can also beprovided manually (e.g., via removable computer-readable media). In somecases, the information may need to be reformatted so it matches theformat of other data in the database 1252.

EXAMPLE 13 Exemplary Implementations

In various implementations of the technologies, a computer-implementedsystem can be provided that collects pre-hire applicant information usedto assess suitability for employment in specific jobs. The computersystem can also collect post-hire measures of the job effectiveness ofemployees hired using the system.

The pre-hire and post-hire information can then be converted and storedelectronically as numeric data where such data can be logicallyquantified. Artificial intelligence technology and statistical analysiscan be used to identify patterns within the pre-hire data that areassociated with patterns of job effectiveness stored in the post-hiredata. Pre-hire data patterns with significant associations withdifferent post-hire patterns are then converted to mathematical models(e.g., data handling routines and equations) representing the observedrelationships.

Following the development of interpretive algorithms that operationalizethe pattern relationships observed in a sample of complete employmentcycles, the pre-hire data collection system can then be re-programmed torun such interpretive formulas on an incoming data stream of newemployment applications. Formula results can be interpreted as anestimate of the probable job effectiveness of new applicants foremployment based on response pattern similarity to others (e.g.,employees). Interpretive equation results can be reported in behavioralterms to hiring managers who can use the information to identify andhire those applicants whose estimated job performance falls within anacceptable range.

The system can be capable of adaptive learning, or the ability to modifypredictive models in response to changing data patterns. Adaptivelearning can be operationalized using artificial intelligencetechnologies, short cycle validation procedures and performance-drivenitem rotation. The validation cycle can be repeated periodically as newemployment histories are added to the database. With successivevalidation cycles, pre-hire predictor variables that have little or norelationship to job effectiveness can be dropped. New item content canreplace the dropped items. Predictive variables can be retained and usedby interpretive algorithms until sufficient data has accumulated tointegrate the new predictors into the next generation interpretivealgorithm. The outdated algorithm and associated records can be archivedand the new model deployed. Adaptive learning can enable evolutionaryperformance improvement, geographic specialization, and shorter, moreaccurate pre-hire questionnaires.

EXAMPLE 14 Criterion Validation

Criterion validation includes discovering and using measures ofindividual differences to identify who, out of a group of candidates, ismore likely to succeed in a given occupation or job. Individualdifferences are measures of human characteristics that differ acrossindividuals using systematic measurement procedures. Such measuresinclude biographic or life history differences, standardized tests ofmental ability, personality traits, work attitudes, occupationalinterests, work-related values and beliefs, and tests of physicalcapabilities, as well as traditional employment-related information,such as employment applications, background investigation results,reference checks, education, experience, certification requirements, andthe like.

Criterion validation includes the research process used to discover howthese measures of individual differences relate to a criterion orstandard for evaluating the effectiveness of an individual or groupperforming a job. Typical measures of job effectiveness includeperformance ratings by managers or customers, productivity measures suchas units produced or dollar sales per hour, length of service,promotions and salary increases, probationary survival, completion oftraining programs, accident rates, number of disciplinary incidents orabsences, and other quantitative measures of job effectiveness. Any ofthese measures of job effectiveness and others (e.g., whether anapplicant will be involuntarily terminated, and the like) can bepredicted via a model.

Pre-hire metrics, including those listed above, called predictors, canbe analyzed in relation to each criterion to discover systematicco-variation. A common statistic used to summarize such relationships isthe Pearson Product Moment Correlation coefficient, or simply thevalidity coefficient. If a predictor measure is found to correlate witha criterion measure across many individuals in a validation sample, thepredictor is said to be “valid,” that is predictive of the criterionmeasure. Valid predictors (e.g., pre-hire information) that correlatewith specific criteria, such as post-hire measures (e.g., includingconcurrent performance measures) are then used in the evaluation of newcandidates as they apply for the same or similar jobs. Individualdifferences in temperament, ability, and other measures can haveprofound and measurable effects on organizational outcomes.

In employee selection, an independent (e.g., “predictor”) variable canbe any quantifiable human characteristic with a measurable relationshipto job performance. Physical measurements, intelligence tests,personality inventories, work history data, educational attainment, andother job-related measures are typical. The dependent (e.g.,“criterion”) variable can be defined as a dependent or predicted measurefor judging the effectiveness of persons, organizations, treatments, orpredictors of behavior, results, and organizational effectiveness.

In general, measures of job performance include objective numeric data,such as absenteeism, accident rates, unit or sales productivity can bereadily verified from direct observation and are sometimes called “hard”measures. Objective measures of job performance may be available foronly a small set of narrowly-defined production and otherbehaviorally-specific jobs. In the absence of hard measurement, opiniondata such as performance ratings by managers can be used for the samepurpose.

Establishing the criterion validity of a selection test or group oftests can include informed theory building and hypothesis testing thatseeks to confirm or reject the presence of a functional relationship.

EXAMPLE 15 Artificial Intelligence Techniques

Artificial intelligence can attempt to simulate human intelligence withcomputer circuits and software. There are at least three approaches tomachine intelligence: expert systems, neural networks, and fuzzy logicsystems. Expert systems can capture knowledge of human experts usingrule-based programs to gather information and make sequential decisionsbased on facts and logical branching. These systems involve humanexperts for constructing the decision models necessary to simulate humaninformation processing. Expert systems can be used to standardizecomplex procedures and solve problems with clearly defined decisionrules.

Neural networks (also commonly called “neural systems,” “associativememories,” “connectionist models,” “parallel distributed processors,”and the like) can be computer simulations of neuro-physiologicalstructures (e.g., nerve cells) found in nature. Unlike expert systems,artificial neural networks can learn by association or experience,rather than being programmed. Like their biological counterparts, neuralneworks form internal representations of the external world as a resultof exposure to stimuli. Once trained, they can generalize or makeinferences and predictions about data that they have not been exposed tobefore. Neural networks are able to create internal models of complex,nonlinear multivariate relationships, even when the source data is noisyor incomplete. It is this capacity to function with uncertain or fuzzydata that makes a neural processor valuable in the real world.

Fuzzy computation includes a set of procedures for representing setmembership, attributes, and relationships that cannot be described usingsingle point numeric estimates. Fuzzy systems can allow computers torepresent words and concepts such as vagueness, uncertainty, and degreesof an attribute. Fuzzy systems can allow computers to represent complexrelationships and interactions between such concepts. They can also be auseful tool for describing human attributes in terms that a computer canprocess. Fuzzy concepts and fuzzy relationship models can be used in anemployee selection system to represent predictor-criterion interactionswhen such relationships are supported by analysis of the available data.

Neuro-fuzzy technology is a hybrid artificial intelligence techniqueemploying the capabilities of both neural network learning and fuzzylogic model specification. In an employee selection system,predictor-criterion relationships can be described initially as a fuzzymodel and then optimized using neural network training procedures. Inthe absence of evident explanatory predictor-criterion relationships,unspecified neural networks can be used until such relationships can beverified.

Genetic algorithms can represent intelligent systems by simulatingevolutionary adaptation using mathematical procedures for reproduction,genetic crossover, and mutation. In an employee selection system,genetic algorithm-based data handling routines can be used to comparethe prediction potential of various combinations of predictor variablesto optimize variable selection for model development.

Information theoretic based feature selection can be based oninformation theory. Such a technique can use measures of informationtransmission to identify relations between independent and dependentvariables. Since information theory does not depend on a particularmodel, relation identification is not limited by the nature of therelation. Once the identification process is complete, the set ofindependent variables can be reduced so as to include only thosevariables with the strongest relationship to the dependent variables.

Such a pre-filtering process facilitates the modeling process byremoving inputs which are (e.g., for the most part) superfluous andwould therefore constitute input noise to the model. A reduction in thedimensionality of the input vector to the model also reduces thecomplexity of the model and in some cases (e.g., neural networks),greatly reduces the computational expense involved in model generation.

Information theoretic-based modeling techniques such asreconstructability analysis can be used in an employee selection system.Such techniques use informational dependencies between variables toidentify the essential relations within a system. The system is thenmodeled by reproducing the joint probability distributions for therelevant variables. The benefits of such modeling techniques includethat they do not depend on a model and can emulate both deterministicand stochastic systems.

An employee selection system can include adaptive learning technology.Such a system can be constructed as a hybrid artificial intelligenceapplication, based in part on various (or all) of the above artificialintelligence technologies. Expert systems can be employed to collect andprocess incoming and outgoing data, transfer data between sub-systemsinternally and in model deployment. Neural networks can be used forvariable selection, model development, and adaptive learning. Fuzzy settheory, fuzzy variable definition, and neuro-fuzzy procedures can beused in variable specification, model definition, and refinement.Genetic algorithm techniques can be used in variable selection, neuralnetwork architecture configuration and model development and testing.Information theoretic feature selection and modeling techniques can beused in data reduction, variable selection, and model development.

EXAMPLE 16 Electronic Repository System

Externally-collected data can be sent to an in-bound communicationssub-system that serves as a central repository of information. Data canbe uploaded via a variety of techniques (e.g., telephone lines,Internet, or other data transfer mechanisms). The in-boundcommunications sub-system can include a set of software programs toperform various functions.

For example, the sub-system can receive incoming data from external datacollection devices. The incoming data can be logged with a date, timeand source record. Data streams can be stored to a backup storage file.

After data reception, the subsystem can respond to the source devicewith a text message indicating that transmission was successful orunsuccessful; other messages or instructions can be provided. The datastream can be transferred to a transaction monitor (e.g., such as thatdescribed below) for further processing.

The subsystem can also download machine-specific executable code andscripting files to external data collection devices when changes to theuser-interface are desired. The download transmissions can be logged bydate, time, and status and the external device's response recorded.

EXAMPLE 17 Transaction Monitor

A transaction monitor can serve as an application processing system thatdirects information flow and task execution between and amongsubsystems. The transaction monitor can classify incoming and outgoingdata streams and launch task-specific sub-routines using multi-threadedexecution and pass sub-routine output for further processing untiltransactions (e.g., related to data streams) have been successfullyprocessed.

A transaction monitor can perform various functions. For example, thetransaction monitor can classify data streams or sessions astransactions after transmission to an in-bound communicationssub-system. Classification can indicate the processing tasks associatedwith processing the transaction.

Data can be parsed (e.g., formatted into a pre-defined structure) foradditional processing and mapped to a normalized relational database(e.g., the applicant database described below). Data elements can bestored with unique identifiers into a table containing similar data fromother sessions.

Session processing task files can be launched to process parsed datastreams. For example, an executable program (e.g., C++ program, dynamiclink library, executable script, or the like) can perform various datatransmission, transformation, concatenation, manipulation or encodingtasks to process the sessions.

Output from session processing tasks can then be formatted for furtherprocessing and transmission to external reporting devices (e.g., at anemployer's site).

For example, the imaging and delivery sub-system described below can beused.

EXAMPLE 18 Applicant Database

A relational database can store pre- and post-employment data forsession transactions that are in process or were received and recentlyprocessed. As individual session records age, they can be systematicallytransferred to another storage database (e.g., the reports databasedescribed below).

Both databases can consist of electronically-stored tables made up ofrows and columns of numeric and text data. In general, rows containidentifier keys (e.g., unique keys) that link elements of a uniquesession to other data elements of that session. Columns can hold thecomponent data elements. Unique session data can be stored across manytables, any of which may be accessed using that session's uniqueidentification key.

An arrangement of three basic types of data can be used for theapplicant database. First, standard pre-hire application information(e.g., name, address, phone number, job applied for, previousexperience, references, educational background, and the like) can bestored. Also, included can be applicant responses to psychological orother job-related assessments administered via an external datacollection device (e.g., the electronic device 124 of FIG. 1).

Second, post-hire data about the job performance of employees afterbeing hired can be stored. Such data can include, for example,supervisor opinion ratings about the employee's overall job performanceor specific aspects of the employee's job effectiveness. Quantitativeindicators about attendance, sales or unit production, disciplinaryrecords and other performance measures may also be collected.

Third, employer-specific information used to process transactions can bestored. Such data can include information for sending an appropriateelectronic report to a correct employer location, information related todownloading user interface modifications to specific data collectiondevices, and information for general management of information exchangebetween various sub-systems. For example, employer fax numbers, URL's,email accounts, geographic locations, organizational units, datacollection unit identifier, and the like can be stored.

Other information or less information can be stored in the database.Further, the database may be broken into multiple databases if desired.

EXAMPLE 19 Reports Database

A reports database can be a relational database serving as a centralrepository for records processed by the applicant database. Applicantrecords for applicants not hired can be deleted. Applicant records forapplicants aged over a certain client-specified record retention timelimit can be deleted.

The reports database can be used as a source for the data used ingenerating, printing, or posting corporate reports (e.g., such as thosedescribed below). Such data can include client-specific records ofemployment applications received for recent reporting periods, pluspre-hire predictor and post-hire criterion performance data.

EXAMPLE 20 Corporate Reports

Useful information can be collected in the course of operating a hiringrecommendation system. For example, information about applicant flow,hiring activity, employee turnover, recruiting costs, number ofvoluntary terminations, applicant and employee characteristics and otheremployee selection metrics can be collected, stored, and reported.

Standardized reports can be provided to employers via printed reports,fax machines, email, and secure Internet web site access. Source datacan come from the reports database described above. Custom reports canalso be generated.

EXAMPLE 21 Sample Size Monitor

A sample size monitor can be provided as a computer program thatmonitors the quality and quantity of incoming data and provides anindication when a sufficient number or predictor-criterion paired caseshave accumulated. For example, employer-specific validation data can betransferred to a model development environment upon accumulation ofsufficient data.

The program can use an expert system decision rule base to keep track ofhow many complete employee life cycle histories are in a reportsdatabase. In addition, the software can examine and partition individualrecords that may be unusable due to missing fields, corrupted data, orother data fidelity problems. Using pre-defined sample size boundaries,the software can merge available pre- and post-hire data transfer andtransfer a file to the validation queue (e.g., the queue describedbelow).

EXAMPLE 22 External Service Providers

A system can interface with other online data services of interest toemployers. Using a telecommunication link to third party servicecomputers, a transaction monitor can relay applicant information totrigger delivery of specialized additional pre-hire data which can thenbe added to an applicant database and used in subsequent analysis andreporting. Such services can include, for example, online workopportunity tax credit (WOTC) eligibility reporting, online socialsecurity number verification, online background investigation results asindicated by specific jobs, and psychological assessment results,including off-line assessment. Such services are represented in FIG. 1as the third party service 126.

EXAMPLE 23 Validation Queuing Utility

Validation queuing utility software can be provided to serve as atemporary storage location for criterion validation datasets that havenot yet been processed in a model development environment (e.g., such asthat described below). Datasets can be cataloged, prioritized, andscheduled for further processing using predefined decision rules. Whenhigher priority or previously-queued datasets have been processed, thefile can be exported to the analysis software used for modeldevelopment.

EXAMPLE 24 Model Development Technique

Model development can result in the creation of a model that representsobserved functional relationships between pre-hire data and post-hiredata. Artificial intelligence technologies can be used to define andmodel such relationships. Such technologies can include expert systems,neural networks and similar pattern function simulators, fuzzy logicmodels, and neuro-fuzzy predictive models.

Various procedures can be implemented. For example, the distribution ofpre-hire variables (sometimes called “independent” or “predictorvariables”) can be analyzed in relation to the distribution of post-hireoutcome data (sometimes called “dependent” or “criterion variables”).

Using statistical and information theory derived techniques, a subset ofpredictor variables can be identified that show information transfer(e.g., potential predictive validity) to one or more criterionvariables.

An examination of joint distributions may result in the formalization ofa fuzzy theoretical model and certain predictors may be transformed to afuzzy variable format.

If an obvious theoretical model does not emerge from this process, theremaining subset of promising variables can be categorized andtransformed for neural network training. Non-useful (e.g., ineffective)predictor variables can be dropped from further analysis.

The total sample of paired predictor-criterion cases (e.g., individualemployee case histories) can be segmented into three non-overlappingsub-samples with group membership being randomly defined. Alternateprocedures, such as randomized membership rotation may also be used tosegment the data.

A training set can be used to train a neural network or neuro-fuzzymodel to predict, classify, or rank the probable criterion valueassociated with each instance of predictor input variables. A test setcan be used to evaluate and tune the performance (e.g., predictiveaccuracy) of models developed using the training set. A hold-out orindependent set can be used to rank trained networks by their ability togeneralize learning to unfamiliar data. Networks with poor predictiveaccuracy or low generalization are dropped from further development.

Surviving trained models can then be subjected to additional testing toevaluate acceptability for operational use in employee selection. Suchtesting can include adverse impact analysis and selection rateacceptability.

Adverse impact analysis can evaluate model output for differentialselection rates or bias against protected groups. Using independentsample output, selection rates can be compared across gender, ethnicity,age, and other class differences for bias for or against the groups.Models which demonstrate differential prediction or improper bias can bedropped from further development.

Selection rate acceptability can include evaluation of selection ratesfor hire/reject classification models. Selection rates on theindependent sample can be evaluated for stringency (e.g., rejects toomany applicants) or leniency (e.g., accepts too many applicants) andmodels showing these types of errors can be dropped.

Final candidate networks can be ranked according to their performance ontest parameters, and the single best model can be converted to asoftware program for deployment in a live employee selection system. Thecoded program can then be passed to the deployment and archiving modules(e.g., such as those described below).

Such an iterative process can be repeated as differentpredictor-criterion relationships emerge. As sufficient data accumulateson specific criterion outcomes, additional predictive models can bedeveloped. Older models can eventually be replaced by superiorperforming models as item content is rotated to capture additionalpredictive variation (e.g., via the item rotation module describedbelow). Sample size can continue to increase. Thus, a system can evolvetoward higher predictive accuracy.

EXAMPLE 25 Model Deployment Technique

Deployment of a model can include a hiring report modification and modelinsertion. The hiring report modification can include modifications toan imaging and delivery subsystem and an applicant processing system(e.g., the above-described transaction monitor).

To facilitate employer use of model predictions, numeric output can betranslated into text, number, or graphics that are descriptive of thebehavior being predicted. Output can be presented to an employer inbehavioral terms.

When a criterion to be predicted is a number, the exact numeric estimatecan be couched in a statement or picture clearly describing thepredicted behavior. For example, if the model has produced an estimateof an applicant's probable length of service in days, the hiring reportcan be modified to include a statement such as the following example:

Based on similarity to former employees, this applicant's estimatedlength of service is X days, plus or minus Y days margin of error.

X can be the specific number of days that the trained predictive modelhas provided as an estimate of the applicant's probable length ofservices, and Y can be the statistical margin of error in which themajority of cases will tend to fall.

When the criterion to be predicted is group membership (e.g., whether ornot the applicant is likely to belong to a specific group), the modelestimate may be expressed as a probability, or likelihood, that theapplicant will eventually be classified in that group. For example, ifthe predictive model has been trained to classify employee responsepatterns according to the probability that they would be eligible forrehire instead of not being eligible for rehire upon termination, astatement or graphic similar to the following example can be presentedon a hiring report:

Based on similarity to former and/or current employees, this applicant'sprobability of being eligible for rehire upon termination is X percent.

X can be a probability function expressed as a percentage representingthe number of chances in one hundred that the particular applicant willbe eligible for rehire when he or she leaves the company.

When the criterion produced is a ranking or relative position in aranked criterion, text or graphic images can be used to convey theapplicant's position in the criterion field. For example, if the modelhas produced an estimate of the probable rank of a sales employee'sannual sales volume compared to past sales employees, a statementsimilar to the following example might be used:

Based on similarity to former sales employees, this applicant is likelyto produce annual sales in the top Xth (e.g., third, quarter, fifth, orthe like) of all sales employees.

X can refer to the ranking method used to classify the criterionmeasure.

Such text-based reporting methods as described above can be summarized,illustrated with, appended to, or replaced by graphic imagesrepresenting the behavioral information. For example, charts, graphs,images, animated images, and other content format can be used.

Applicant processing system model insertion can be accomplished byembedding a coded model in the application processing conducted by atransaction monitor after the format of the predictive output has beendetermined. Data handling routines can separate model input variablesfrom the incoming data stream. The inputs can be passed to thepredictive model and be processed. The output of the model can then beinserted or transformed into a reporting format as described above andadded to a hiring report transmission.

EXAMPLE 26 Validation Archives

As a new model is deployed, the replaced model can be transferred to anarchive storage. The archive can also record applicants processed by theold model. Such an archive can be useful if reconstruction of resultsfor a decommissioned model is desired for administrative or otherreasons.

EXAMPLE 27 Exemplary Item Rotation Technique

An item rotation module can be implemented as a software program anddatabase of predictor item content. The item rotation module can be usedto systematically change pre-hire content so that useful predictorvariables are retained while non-useful (e.g., ineffective) predictorscan be replaced with potentially useful new predictors.

Adaptive learning includes the ability of a system to improve accuracyof its behavioral predictions with successive validation cycles.Iterative neural network and neuro-fuzzy model development andperformance-driven item rotation can be used to facilitate adaptivelearning.

As part of a validation analysis for a model, predictor variables (e.g.,pre-hire questions or items) predictive of a criterion measure can beidentified. At the same time, other predictors with little or nomodeling utility (e.g., ineffective predictors) can be identified.

Performance-driven item rotation includes the practice of systematicallyretaining and deleting pre-hire content so that item content withpredictive utility continues to serve as input for behavioral predictionwith the current predictive model and items with little or no predictiveutility are dropped from the content. New, experimental item content canbe inserted into the content and response patterns can be recorded foranalysis in the next validation cycle.

Such rotation is shown in Tables 1 and 2. TABLE 1 Item Content DuringValidation Cycle #1 Item Status You help people a lot Ineffective Youtease people until they get mad Ineffective You have confidence inyourself Effective You would rather not get involved in Ineffectiveother's problems Common sense is one of your greatest Ineffectivestrengths You prefer to do things alone Effective You have no fear ofmeeting people Effective You are always cheerful Ineffective 24 × 7 = ?Ineffective You get mad at yourself when you make Ineffective mistakesHow many months were you at your last Effective job?

TABLE 2 Item Content After Validation Cycle #1 Item Status Many peoplecannot be trusted New experimental item You are not afraid to tellsomeone off New experimental item You have confidence in yourselfEffective - retained You try to sense what others are thinking Newexperimental item and feeling You attract attention to yourself Newexperimental item You prefer to do things alone Effective - retained Youhave no fear of meeting people Effective - retained You can waitpatiently for a long time New experimental item You say whatever is onyour mind New experimental item Background check item New experimentalitem How many months were you at your last Effective - retained job?

The content shown in Table 1 has been refined to be that shown in Table2, based on the effectiveness of the predictor items. New experimentalitems have been added, the effectiveness of which can be evaluatedduring subsequent cycles.

As successive validation cycles are completed and non-predictive itemcontent is systematically replaced with predictive item content, overallvalidity improves. After multiple validation cycles, the result can be ashorter pre-hire questionnaire comprised of currently-performingpredictive input and a few experimental items being validated in anon-going process for system evolution toward higher predictive accuracy.

EXAMPLE 28 Imaging and Delivery Subsystems

Imaging and delivery subsystems can assemble input from applicantprocessing to create an electronic image that resembles a traditionalemployment application that can be transmitted to an employer's hiringsite via external data devices (e.g., fax machine, computer with emailor web access, hand-held devices, digitally enabled telephones,printers, or other text/graphics imaging devices). Hiring reports canalso be delivered as hard copy via mail or other delivery services.

EXAMPLE 29 Hire Site Report Reception

Hiring managers can receive an electronic report that can be printed orsimply saved in electronic format. The entire application process canoccur in real-time or batch mode (e.g., overnight bulk processing).Real-time processing can result in hiring report reception minutes afterpre-hire data is uploaded. Such rapid report reception can be anadvantage of the system.

EXAMPLE 30 Exemplary Combination of Elements

The various above-described elements can be combined in variouscombinations and sub-combinations to construct a system. For example,FIG. 13 shows an exemplary combination of elements.

Pre-hire and post-hire data collection elements 1312 can send, via theincoming communications subsystem 1316, information to the transactionmonitor 1318. The information can be stored in the applicant database1322 while processed and then stored in the reports database 1324. Thereports database 1324 can be used to produce corporate reports 1328.

A sample size monitor 1332 can monitor the reports database 1324 andsend information, via the validation queue 1338, to the predictive modeldevelopment environment 1342. Models from the development environment1342 can be sent for model deployment 1348, including hiring reportmodification and model insertion.

Archived models can be sent to the validation archives 1352, and an itemrotation module 1358 can track rotation of predictive content. Imagingand delivery subsystems 1372 can deliver hire site reports 1378.

External service providers 1388 can interface with the system 1302 toprovide a variety of data such as applicant pre-hire information (e.g.,background verification, credit check information, social securitynumber verification, traffic and criminal information, and the like).

Fewer or additional elements can be included in a system.

EXAMPLE 31 Exemplary Process Overview

The various techniques described above can be used in a process overtime. In such a process, adaptive learning can improve employeeselection with successive validation cycles as sample size increases andpredictor input systematically evolves to capture more criterionrelationships and higher predictor-criterion fidelity. An example isshown in FIGS. 14A-14D.

FIG. 14A shows a first cycle 1402. For example, when an employer firstbegins to use a system, applicants enter pre-hire application andassessment responses using external data collection devices. The datacan be stored and processed as described above, except that as of yet nobehavioral predictions appear on the hiring report because a sufficientnumber of employee histories has not yet been captured by the system.

As employee job performance measures are taken, employees leave andcomplete exit interviews and their managers complete an exit evaluation,or payroll information is collected also using the external datacollection devices, employee histories are added to the database. Therate of data accumulation is a function of how quickly people apply, arehired, and then terminate employment. An alternative to capturingpost-hire job performance data upon termination is to collect similardata on the same population prior to termination on a concurrent basis.In the example, the size of the validation database is small, there isno adaptive learning, there are no predictive models, and there are nobehavioral predictions.

When a sufficient sample of employee histories is available, validationand predictive modeling can occur. Following model development, thesecond validation cycle 1422 can begin as shown in FIG. 14B. Ineffectivepre-hire variables are dropped or replaced with new content and thepre-hire application is modified. Applicant and terminating employeeprocessing continues and more employee histories are added to thedatabase. In the example, the validation database is medium, there is atleast one predictive model, and there is at least one behavioralprediction (e.g., length of service or tenure).

A third validation cycle 1442 is shown in FIG. 14C. Initially,predictive modeling might be limited to behavioral criteria commonlyobserved, such as length of service, rehire eligibility, or jobperformance ratings because sample sufficiency occurs first with suchcommon measures. Other less frequently occurring data points (e.g.,misconduct terminations) typically accumulate more slowly. As managersbegin using the behavioral predictions to select new employees, thecomposition of the workforce can begin to change (e.g., newer employeesdemonstrate longer tenure, higher performance, and the like).

As usable samples are obtained for different criteria (e.g., post-hireoutcomes), new models are developed to predict these behaviors. Olderpredictive models can be replaced or re-trained to incorporate both newitem content from the item rotation procedure and additional criterionvariation resulting from the expanding number of employee historiescontained in the validation database. In the example, the validationdatabase is large, there are differentiated models, and a number ofbehavioral predictions (e.g., tenure, early quit, and eligibility forrehire).

Fourth and subsequent validation cycles 1462 are shown in FIG. 14D.Multiple iterations of the validation cycle using larger and largervalidation samples result in multiple complex models trained to producesucessively-improving behavioral prediction across the spectrum ofmeasurable job-related outcomes (e.g., eligibility for rehire, tenure,probable job performance, probability of early quit, job fit,misconduct, and the like). In the example, the validation database isvery large, there are complex, differentiated models, and manybehavioral predictions.

The behavioral predictions can become more accurate the longer thesystem is in place. If used consistently over time, the workforce mayeventually be comprised entirely of employees selected on the basis oftheir similarity to successful former employees. Continued use of theadaptive learning employee selection technology can be expected toproduce positive changes in the global metrics used to assess workforceeffectiveness. Such metrics include lower rates of employee delinquency(e.g., theft, negligence, absenteeism, job abandonment, and the like),higher rates of productivity (e.g., sales, unit production, servicedelivery, and the like), longer average tenure and reduced employeeturnover, and higher workforce job satisfaction and more effectiveemployee placement.

EXAMPLE 32 Exemplary Process Overview

FIG. 15 is a process flow diagram illustrating an exemplary process 1502for an employment suitability prediction system. At 1512, data iscollected. Such collection can be accomplished in a wide variety ofways. For example, electronic data collection units can be distributed,or a URL can be used by employment applicants.

Electronic versions of a standard employment application or tests can bedeployed. Also, post-hire data collection can be accomplished bydeploying post-hire data collection questionnaires and via payroll datatransfer. Also, manager feedback report apparatus (e.g., fax backreports or e-mail report of results) can be deployed so managers canreceive information such as hiring recommendations. The service can thenbe implemented, and data collection can begin.

At 1522, feature selection can take place. Pre-hire application recordscan be extracted from an applicant processing system, and post-hireoutcome data can be extracted from a reports database. Pre- andpost-data can be sorted and matched from both sources to create amatched predictor-criterion set. Information theoretic feature selectioncan be run to identify top-ranking predictive items based on informationtransmission (e.g., mutual information). Item data characterized bymarginal mutual information can be deleted and a distilled predictivemodeling dataset can be saved.

At 1532, model development can take place. The distilled predictivemodeling dataset can be randomized and partitioned into training,testing, and verification subsets. A group of models (e.g., neuralnetworks) that meet performance criteria thresholds can be built byexperimenting with multiple neural network paradigms, architectures, andmodel parameters.

The models can be tested for their ability to generalize (e.g., applylearned pattern information from training and test sets to theverification dataset). Non-generalizing models can be discarded and thesurviving models can be saved.

Surviving models can be tested for differential prediction, adverseimpact and other anomalies. Biased nets can be discarded. Unbiasedmodels can be ranked and saved.

At 1542, model deployment can take place. The top-performing survivingmodel can be converted to software command code. The code can beintegrated into a custom session processing task which executes modelprocessing and exports the output to an imaging program and hiringreport generator.

The new session processing task can be tested for appropriate handlingand processing of the incoming data stream values in a software testenvironment. The session processing task code can be refined anddebugged if necessary. Then, the new task can be deployed in anoperational applicant processing system.

At 1552, performance tuning can take place. Data collection cancontinue. Sample size can be monitored as incoming data accumulates.When an update threshold is reached, new cases can be added to thematched predictor-criterion set by repeating feature selection 1522.Item content can be revised using a performance driven item rotationprocedure (e.g., replace or remove survey items with marginalinformation transmission). Model development 1532, model deployment1542, and performance tuning 1552 can then be repeated.

EXAMPLE 33 Effectiveness of a Model

Real-time electronic collection of data and sample size-drivenrefinement of models can result in high model effectiveness. Forexample, FIG. 16 shows a graph 16 in which effectiveness 1622 of areference system is shown. As conditions change over time, theeffectiveness 1622 of the system decreases. The mean effectiveness 1624is also shown.

As system employing real-time electronic data collection and samplesize-driven model refinement can exhibit the effectiveness 1632 asshown. As the model is refined, the effectiveness of the model increasesover time. Thus, the mean effectiveness 1634 is greater, resulting in amore effective system.

EXAMPLE 34 Exemplary Automated Hiring Recommendation Service

Using various of the technologies, a method for providing an automatedhiring recommendation service for an employer can be provided.Electronic devices can be stationed at employer sites (e.g., retailoutlets). The electronic devices can directly accept pre-hireinformation from job applicants (e.g., answers to questions from a jobapplication). The pre-hire information can then be sent to a remote site(e.g., via a network of telephone connection) for analysis. Anartificial intelligence-based predictive model or other model can beapplied to the pre-hire information to generate an automated hiringrecommendation, which can be automatically sent to the employer (e.g.,via email).

EXAMPLE 35 Exemplary Implementation

A behavioral prediction model can be developed to generate an estimateof the tenure (length of service in days) to be expected of applicantsfor employment as customer service representatives of a national chainof video rental stores. Such predictions can be based on thecharacteristics and behaviors of past employees in the same job at thesame company. Application of the model can result in higher averagetenure and lower employee turnover.

As a specific example, pre-hire application data used to develop thisexemplary model was collected over a period of a year and a half usingan electronic employment application as administered using screen phonesdeployed in over 1800 stores across the United States. Terminationrecords of employees hired via the system were received by download.Over 36,000 employment applications were received in the reportingperiod, of which approximately 6,000 resulted in employment. Completehire to termination records were available for 2084 of these employees,and these records were used to develop the model.

When building the model, definition of system inputs and outputs wasaccomplished. Independent or predictor variables can be measures ofindividual characteristics thought to be related to a behavior oroutcome resulting from a behavior. In industrial psychology and employeeselection, typical predictor variables might be measures of education,experience or performance on a job-related test. Criterion variables canbe measures of the behavior or outcome to be predicted and might includesales effectiveness, job abandonment, job performance as measured bysupervisor ratings, employee delinquency and other behavioral metrics orcategories.

In this example, predictor variables are inputs and criterion variablesare outputs. In this research, input variables consist of a subset ofthe employment application data entered by applicants when applying forjobs (see Tables 4 and 5 for a listing of the variables used in thismodel). The output or criterion is the number of days that an employeestayed on the payroll.

The process of identifying the subset of predictor variables to be usedin a model is sometimes called “feature selection.” While anyinformation gathered during the employment application process may havepredictive value, the set of predictors is desirably reduced as much aspossible. The complexity (as measured by the number of networkconnections) of a network can increase geometrically with the number ofinputs. As complexity increases so can training time along with thenetwork's susceptibility to over-training. Therefore inputs with lesspredictive power can be eliminated in favor of a less complex neuralnetwork model.

For the tenure prediction model in this illustrative example,information theoretic methods were employed to determine the subset ofinput variables that maximized information transmission between thepredictor set and the criterion. Such an approach can rely on thestatistical theory of independent events, where events p₁, p₂, . . . ,p_(n) are considered statistically independent if and only if theprobability P, that they occur on a given trial is $\begin{matrix}{P = {\prod\limits_{i = 1}^{n}p_{i}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$Conversely, the measurement of how much a joint distribution ofprobabilities differs from the independence distribution can be used asa measure of the statistical dependence of the random events.

Information theoretic entropy can provide a convenient metric forestimating the difference between distributions. The entropy, H(X)(measured in bits) of the distribution of a discrete random variable Xwith n states can be $\begin{matrix}{{H(X)} = {- {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{n}{p_{i}\log_{2}p_{i}}}}} & (2)\end{matrix}$where p_(i) is the probability of state i. Entropy can be maximized whena distribution is uniform. For example, FIG. 17 shows a graph 1702 ofthe entropies 1722 of a single variable, discrete 2-state distributionsand how their probabilities vary.

Similarly, for a multivariate distribution constrained by specifiedmarginal distributions, the distribution that maximizes entropy can bethe independence distribution. Therefore, given a joint distributionwith fixed marginals, the distribution that minimizes entropy can be thedistribution for which the variables are completely dependent.Dependence can be viewed as constraint between variables and asconstraint is reduced, entropy increases. Information theoretic analysisof a distribution is then the measurement of constraint. Decreasingentropy can indicate dependence (minimal entropy, maximum constraint),and increasing entropy can indicate independence (maximum entropy,minimum constraint). Assuming some constraint between variables, sampleddistribution can lie somewhere between complete dependence andindependence and have a measurable entropy.

If we are analyzing the joint distribution of the variables X and Y, theentropy for this sampled distribution can be H(XY). The entropies of thevariables X and Y measured separately are H(X) and H(Y) and can becomputed using the marginals of the joint distribution.

Since H(X) and H(Y) are calculated from the marginals and entropy can belogarithmic,H(X)+H(Y)=H(XY)  (3)if there is no constraint between X and Y.Or:H(XY)=H(X)+H(Y)  (4)if and only if X and Y are independent.

This equality can indicate that there is no relationship between X and Yand the joint distribution of the variables is the independencedistribution.

Information transmission T can be the measure of the distance betweendistributions along the continuum described above. For discrete randomvariables X and Y, T(X:Y) the information transmission between X and Y,is computed:T(X:Y)=H(X)+H(Y)−H(XY)  (5)T(X:Y) is the difference between the entropies of the independencedistribution and the sampled joint distribution. The degree ofdependence between X and Y can therefore be computed by measuringinformation transmission. A small value for T(X:Y) indicates thevariables X and Y are nearly independent, whereas a large value suggestsa high degree of interaction.

In a directed system, such as a predictive model, the measure ofinformation transmission between the distribution of an independentvariable X and a dependent variable Y can be used to gauge thepredictive value of X. The goal can be to find a subset S of theindependent variables V such that, for the set of dependent variables D:T(D:V)≈T(D:S)  (6)However, as discussed, the modeling technique to be employed may limitthe cardinality of S so the filtering process can be guided by thefollowing considerations:

-   -   1. if S′ is any subset of V smaller than S, then T(D:S′) is        significantly smaller than T(D:S).    -   2. if S′ is any subset of V larger than S, then T(D:S′) is not        significantly larger than T(D:S)        Since information theoretic transmission can measure the degree        of difference between distributions of variables, without regard        to the nature of the difference, the technique can be considered        “model free”. This property allows the methodology to work as an        effective filter regardless of the subsequent modeling        techniques employed.

When this type of feature selection was applied to tenure prediction, 56questions (see Tables 4 and 5) were selected has having the mostpredictive value with respect to applicant tenure.

Once the set of predictor variables or inputs has been defined and theoutput criterion variable specified, a neural network model can betrained. For the tenure prediction model, 2084 cases were available.This sample was divided into training, test and verification sets. Thetraining set contained 1784 cases and the verification and test setscontained 150 cases each.

The best performing neural network architecture was found to be a singlehidden layer feed-forward network with 56 input nodes and 40 hiddenlayer nodes.

The network was developed with the STATISTICA Neural Network packageusing a combination of quick-propagation and conjugate gradienttraining.

The performance on the training and verification sets began to divergesignificantly after 300 epochs. This was deemed to be the point ofover-training. Optimal performance on the hold-out sets was achieved at100 epochs. The results are shown in Table 3, which contains finaldistribution statistics of model output for each of the three datasubsets. Unadjusted correlation and significance statistics are inrelation to actual tenure. By any standard, an employee selectionprocedure with a correlation in the 0.5 range with a job-relatedcriteria is not merely acceptable, but exceptional. Many validatedselection procedures in use today were implemented on the basis ofvalidity coefficients in the range of 0.2 to 0.3. TABLE 3 SummaryStatistics of Model Output Train Verify Test Data Mean 73.42657 82.8933371.03333 Data S.D. 70.92945 71.22581 62.16501 Error Mean −0.4771 −7.25827.440303 Error S.D. 60.84374 60.93211 53.80157 Correlation 0.5143490.51901 0.503975 Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000Based on the correlation between prediction and the hold-out sets, theexpected correlation between predictive model output and actual tenurefor future applicants should be in the range of 0.5.

As described in the example, information theoretic feature selection wasused to identify fifty-six biodata and personality assessment itemresponses that were related to employee tenure in a sample of over twothousand employees at a national video rental chain. The data wascollected via interactive electronic survey administration on a networkof screen phones deployed in many regions of the U.S.

A fully-connected, feed-forward backpropagation neural network wastrained to produce an estimate of tenure in days using these fifty-sixpredictor variables (e.g., answers to the questions) as inputs. Networkarchitecture consisted of 56 input neurons or nodes, a hidden layer offorty nodes and one output node. Conjugate gradient descent trainingresulted in convergence between training and test set minimum error inabout 300 iterative training exposures to the data. Model performance onan independent hold-out sample obtained a statistically significantcorrelation of 0.5 with actual tenure. These results are well within therange of acceptable performance for a criterion-referenced employeeselection procedure and represent a significant improvement over manysystems.

In the example, based on information theoretic analysis, the responsesto the questions shown in Tables 4 and 5 were deemed to be the mostpredictive. The following descriptions are the questions in theirentirety accompanied by the possible responses.

To determine that these questions were the most predictive, informationtheoretic analysis of the joint distribution of the response (alone ortogether with other responses) and the dependent variable, tenure, wasperformed. The nature of the relationship between a specific responseand the Criterion variables may not be known, however the predictivesuccess of the neural model suggests this relationship has, to somedegree, been encoded in the weight matrix of the neural network. TABLE 4Pre-hire Content Examples 1. How long do you plan to stay with this jobif hired? 1 - Less than 6 months 2 - 6-12 months 3 - More than 1 year 2.Have you ever worked for this employer before? 1 - Yes 2 - No 3. Reasonfor leaving? (if previously employed by this employer) 4. Which type ofposition do you desire? 1 - Store Director 2 - Assistant Director 3 -Customer Service Representative 4 - Shift Leader 5 - Let's Discuss 5.What do you expect to earn on an hourly basis? (hourly wage given) 6.Desired Schedule? 1 - Regular (not seasonal) 2 - Seasonal 7. DesiredHours? 1 - Full time 2 - Part time 8. When would you be available tostart? 1 - Right Away (within the next day) 2 - Specific Date (if notavailable to start within the next day) 9. Highest Education Level? 1-2Years of College or Less: 1 - Not indicated 2 - Less than HS Graduate3 - HS graduate or equivalent 4 - Some college 5 - Technical School 6 -2-year college degree 2 - More than 2 years of college 1 - Bachelor'slevel degree 2 - Some graduate school 3 - Master's level degree 4 -Doctorate (academic) 5 - Doctorate (professional) 6 - Post-doctorate 7 -Degree not completed 8 - 2-year college degree 10. What was your reasonfor leaving? (last job) 1 - Voluntarily quit 2 - Involuntarilyterminated 3 - Laid off 4 - Still there 11. What was/is your job title?(last job) 1 - Cashier 2 - Stock person 3 - Customer ServiceRepresentative 4 - Management 5 - Other 12. Please describe the area youworked in. (last job) 1 - Apparel 2 - Inventory 3 - Customer service 4 -Food service 5 - Operations 6 - Computers/Electronics 7 - Merchandising8 - Personnel 9 - Other 13. What was/is you supervisor's last name?(given or not given) 14. May we contact this employer? 1 - Yes 2 - No15. What was your reason for leaving? (prior job) 1 - Voluntarily quit2 - Involuntarily terminated 3 - Laid off 4 - Still there 16. Whatwas/is your job title? (prior job) 1 - Cashier 2 - Stock person 3 -Customer Service Representative 4 - Management 5 - Other 17. Pleasedescribe the area you worked in. (prior job) 1 - Apparel 2 - Inventory3 - Customer service 4 - Food service 5 - Operations 6 -Computers/Electronics 7 - Merchandising 8 - Personnel 9 - Other 18. Whatwas/is you supervisor's last name? (prior job) (given or not given) 19.May we contact this employer? (prior job) 1 - Yes 2 - No 20. What wasyour reason for leaving? (prior to prior job) 1 - Voluntarily quit 2 -Involuntarily terminated 3 - Laid off 4 - Still there 21. What was/isyour job title? (prior to prior job) 1 - Cashier 2 - Stock person 3 -Customer Service Representative 4 - Management 5 - Other 22. Pleasedescribe the area you worked in. (prior to prior job) 1 - Apparel 2 -Inventory 3 - Customer service 4 - Food service 5 - Operations 6 -Computers/Electronics 7 - Merchandising 8 - Personnel 9 - Other 23. Whatwas/is you supervisor's last name? (prior to prior job) (given or notgiven) 24. May we contact this employer? (prior to prior job) 1 - Yes2 - No 25. Academic Recognitions? (listed or not listed) 26. OtherRecognitions? (listed or not listed) 27. Have you previously applied foremployment at this employer? 1 - Yes 2 - No 28. Referral Source 1 -Referred to this employer by Individual or Company 1 - Agency 2 - ClientReferral 3 - College Recruiting 4 - Employee Referral 5 - FormerEmployee 6 - Executive Referral 7 - Executive Search 2 - Other Source ofReferral 1 - Advertisement 2 - Job Fair 3 - Job Posting 4 - Open House5 - Other Source 6 - Phone Inquiry 7 - Unknown 8 - Unsolicited 9 - WalkIn 29. Last name of referral (listed or not listed) 30. Any othercommitments? (listed or not listed) 31. Any personal commitments?(listed or not listed)

The possible responses to the question of Table 5 are as follows: “1—Itis definitely false or I strongly disagree, 2—It is false or I disagree,3—It is true or I agree, 4—It is definitely true or I strongly agree.”TABLE 5 Pre-hire Content Examples (e.g., Hourly Workers)  1. You haveconfidence in yourself.  2. You are always cheerful.  3. You get mad atyourself when you make mistakes.  4. You would rather work on a teamthan by yourself.  5. You try to sense what others are thinking andfeeling.  6. You can wait patiently for a long time.  7. When someonetreats you badly, you ignore it.  8. It is easy for you to feel whatothers are feeling.  9. You keep calm when under stress. 10. You like tobe alone. 11. You like to talk a lot. 12. You don't care what peoplethink of you. 13. You love to listen to people talk about themselves.14. You always try not to hurt people's feelings. 15. There are somepeople you really can't stand. 16. People who talk all the time areannoying. 17. You are unsure of yourself with new people 18. Slow peoplemake you impatient. 19. Other people's feelings are their own business.20. You change from feeling happy to sad without any reason. 21. Youcriticize people when they deserve it. 22. You ignore people you don'tlike. 23. You have no big worries. 24. When people make mistakes, youcorrect them. 25. You could not deal with difficult people all day.

EXAMPLE 36 Exemplary Implementation Using Information-Theoretic FeatureSelection

Information-theoretic feature selection can be used to chooseappropriate inputs for a model. In the following example, the source forthe data used to develop the model was a large national video rentalcompany. The sample contains over 2000 cases, with 160 responses toapplication questions collected prior to hiring and tenure (in days) forformer employees. The model was constructed to predict the length ofemployment for a given applicant, if hired.

The application itself consists of 77 bio-data questions (e.g., general,work related, information, job history, education and referralsquestions) and 83 psychometric questions. The psychometric assessmentportion was designed to predict the reliability of an applicant in anhourly, customer service position. For the purposes of modeldevelopment, each question response was treated as a single feature andthe reliability score was not provided to the neural network or featureselection process.

While any information gathered during the application process may havepredictive value, the set of input variables (independent variables or“IVs”) can be reduced. Possible justifications are as follows:

-   -   1. Not all potential IVs may have significant predictive value.        The use of variables with little or no predictive value as        inputs can add noise. Adding IVs to the model which cannot        improve predictive capability may degrade prediction since the        network may need to adapt to filter these inputs. This can        result in additional training time and neural resources.

2. Predictive models can provide a mapping from an input space to anoutput space. The dimensionality of this input space increases with thenumber of inputs. Thus, there are more parameters required to cover themapping which in turn increases the variance of the model (in terms ofthe bias/variance dilemma); such a problem is sometimes referred to asthe “curse of dimensionality.”

IVs with less predictive power can be eliminated in favor of a lesscomplex neural network model by applying feature selection. Such methodsfall into two general categories: filters and wrappers, either of whichcan be used.

1. Wrappers can use the relationship between model performance and IVsdirectly by iteratively experimenting with IV subsets. Since the natureof the bias of the feature selection method matches that of the modelingtechnique, this approach can be theoretically optimal if the search isexhaustive.

The exhaustive application of wrappers can be computationallyoverwhelming for most modeling problems since the number of possiblesubsets is $\begin{matrix}{\begin{pmatrix}n \\k\end{pmatrix} = \frac{n!}{{k!}{\left( {n - k} \right)!}}} & (7)\end{matrix}$where n is the total number of IVs and k is the cardinality of thesubset of features.

Additionally, there can be non-determinism within the modeling process.In neural modeling, though training algorithms are typicallydeterministic, random initialization of the weight parameters varies theresults of models developed with the same inputs. Therefore, evenexhaustive trials may not prove conclusive with respect to estimatingthe predictive value of a set of features.

2. Filters can analyze the relationship between sets of IVs anddependent variables (DVs) using methods independent of those used todevelop the model.

The bias of the filter may be incompatible with that of the modelingtechnique. For example, a filter may fail to detect certain classes ofconstraint, which the subsequent modeling stage may utilize. Conversely,the filter may identify relations which cannot be successfully modeled.Ideally, a filter can be completely inclusive in that no constraintwhich might be replicated by the subsequent modeling stage would bediscarded.

Information-theoretic feature selection can make use of the statisticaltheory of independent events. Events p₁, p₂, . . . , p_(n) areconsidered statistically independent if and only if the probability P,that they all occur on a given trial is $\begin{matrix}{P = {\prod\limits_{i = 1}^{n}p_{i}}} & (8)\end{matrix}$

The degree to which a joint distribution of probabilities diverges fromthe independence distribution may be used as a measure of thestatistical dependence of the events.

Information-theoretic entropy can provide a convenient metric forquantifying the difference between distributions. The entropy, H(X)(measured in bits), of the distribution of a discrete random variable,X, with n states can be $\begin{matrix}{{H(X)} = {- {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{n}{p_{i}\log_{2}p_{i}}}}} & (9)\end{matrix}$where p_(i) is the probability state i.

Entropy can be maximized when a distribution is most uncertain. If adistribution is discrete, this occurs when it is uniform. FIG. 17 showsa graph of the entropies of a single variable, 2-state distribution asthe state probabilities vary.

For a multivariate distribution constrained by fixed marginals, thedistribution which maximizes entropy can be the independencedistribution (calculated as the product of the marginals). Thedistribution which minimizes entropy can be the distribution for whichthe variables are completely dependent.

Dependence can be constraint between variables, so as constraint isreduced, entropy increases. Information-theoretic analysis can thereforebe used to measure constraint. For a joint distribution of discretevariables, X and Y, the total entropy, H(XY) can be $\begin{matrix}{{H({XY})} = {- {\sum\limits_{i,j}{{pij}\quad\log_{2}{pij}}}}} & (10)\end{matrix}$where p_(ij) is the probability of state i,j occurring in the jointdistribution of X and Y, where i designates the state of X and j is thestate of Y. The entropies of X and Y are computed with the marginals ofthe joint distribution $\begin{matrix}{{H(X)} = {- {\sum\limits_{i}{\left( {\sum\limits_{j}p_{ij}} \right){\log_{2}\left( {\sum\limits_{j}p_{ij}} \right)}}}}} & (11) \\{{H(Y)} = {- {\sum\limits_{j}{\left( {\sum\limits_{i}p_{ij}} \right){\log_{2}\left( {\sum\limits_{i}p_{ij}} \right)}}}}} & (12)\end{matrix}$Information transmission (or “mutual information”) can be the measure ofthe distance between the independence and observed distributions alongthe continuum discussed above. For X and Y, T(X:Y) (the informationtransmission between X and y), is computedT(X:Y)=H(X)+H(Y)−H(XY)  (13)In a directed system, the measure of information transmission betweenthe distribution of an independent variable X and a dependent variable Yis a gauge of the predictive value of X. H(X)+H (Y)=H(XY) if and only ifthere is no constraint between X and Y, in which case X would be a poorpredictor for Y.

In order for a computed transmission value, T, to be considered anaccurate measure of existing constraint, the statistical significance ofT for some confidence level, α, can be determined using the χ² test. Thedegrees of freedom (df) for a transmission, T(X:Y), can be calculateddf _(T(XY)) =df _(XY) −df _(x) −df _(Y)  (14)

As the size of the joint distribution increases, so does the df for thesignificance of the transmission value. Since χ² significance decreasesas df increases, the data requirements for transmissions containing alarge number of variables can quickly become overwhelming.

A superior feature set can be determined. A goal can be to discover asubset S of the independent variables V that has the same predictivepower as the entire set with respect to the dependent variables, D.T(V:D)≈T(S:D)  (15)The filtering process can therefore be guided by the following:

-   -   1. if S′ is any subset of V smaller than S, then T(S′:D) is        significantly smaller than T(S:D).    -   2. if S′ is any subset of V larger than S, then T(S′:D) is not        significantly larger than T(S:D).

Higher-order interactions are synergies between variables where thepredictive power of a set of variables is significantly higher than thatof the sum of the individual variables. In terms of informationtransmission for the IVs X₁, . . . , X_(n), and dependent variable D,this is represented,T(X ₁ :D)+ . . . +T(X _(n) :D)<T(X ₁ , . . . , X _(n) :D)  (16)

An illustration of this phenomenon among discrete binary variables: A, Band C, is shown by the contingency table in Tables 6A and 6B. TABLE 6AContingency Table for Distribution ABC, C = 0 B = 0 B = 1 A = 0 ¼ 0 A =1 0 ¼

TABLE 6B Contingency Table for Distribution ABC, C = 1 B = 0 B = 1 A = 00 ¼ A = 1 ¼ 0For the illustrated system, the following transmissions are computed:T(A:C)=H(A)+H(C)−H(AC)=0 bitsT(B:C)=H(B)+H(C)−H(BC)=0 bitsT(AB:C)=H(AB)+H(C)−H(ABC)=1 bit

Knowledge of A or B individually does not reduce the uncertainty of C,but knowledge of A and B eliminates uncertainty since only one state ofC is possible. With only first order transmissions values, A and B wouldnot appear to be predictive features, when in fact, together they areideal.

Higher order interactions were observed in the video clerk tenure data.Table 7 lists the top ten single variable transmissions between thepsychometric questions and tenure. Table 8 shows the top five, two andthree variable transmissions. Each of the most predictive sets ofquestions (based on transmission values) in both the second and thirdorder lists, T(q35 q73:tenure) and T(q4 q12 q39:tenure), contain onlyone question from the top ten most predictive questions based on firstorder transmissions. TABLE 7 Single Order Transmissions BetweenPsychometrics and Tenure variables trans. % H(DV) df χ² sig.T(q83:tenure) 0.0168 0.754 27 0.999 T(q3:tenure) 0.0140 0.628 27 0.991T(q63:tenure) 0.0135 0.607 27 0.987 T(q65:tenure) 0.0133 0.598 27 0.985T(q48:tenure) 0.0133 0.595 27 0.984 T(q44:tenure) 0.0132 0.593 27 0.984T(q35:tenure) 0.0128 0.573 27 0.977 T(q21:tenure) 0.0127 0.569 27 0.975T(q8:tenure) 0.0123 0.553 27 0.967 T(q69:tenure) 0.0123 0.552 27 0.966

TABLE 8 Higher (second and third) Order Transmissions betweenPsychometrics and Tenure variables trans. % H(DV) df χ² sig. T(q35q73:tenure) 0.0593 2.663 135 1.00 T(q21 q83:tenure) 0.0588 2.639 1351.00 T(q39 q65:tenure) 0.0585 2.627 135 1.00 T(q61 q70:tenure) 0.05692.553 135 0.999 T(q44 q53:tenure) 0.0567 2.546 135 0.999 T(q4 q12q39:tenure) 0.1808 8.112 567 0.921 T(q10 q39 q65:tenure) 0.1753 7.864567 0.811 T(q4 q39 q44:tenure) 0.1720 7.718 567 0.712 T(q4 q39q51:tenure) 0.1718 7.709 567 0.705 T(q52 q61 q70:tenure) 0.1717 7.702567 0.700

Such interactions can complicate the search for the optimal set S sincethe members of V may not appear as powerful predictors in calculatedtransmissions using sets of features of cardinality less than |S| (thecardinality of the optimal subset S).

Due to issues of χ² significance, it is frequently overwhelming tocalculate significant transmission values for sets of variables ofcardinality approaching |S|. Additionally, since the number of subsetsof a given cardinality soon become very large, even if the significanceissues were addressed, computational limitations would persist.

In feature selection algorithms that approximate an exhaustive searchfor S by computing only pairwise transmissions, higher-order interactioneffects are not detected. Such methods may not accurately approximate Ssince only variables which are strong single variable predictors will beselected.

Based on the following guidelines, heuristics were applied in an effortto address the problems of combinatorics and significance in measuringhigher-order relations.

Although it is possible for members of the optimal subset of IVs, S, tobe completely absent from all large lower order transmissions, this isprobably unlikely. An omission can be increasingly unlikely as the orderof the transmissions calculated approaches |S|. It is therefore likelythat significant members of S will appear in the top n transmissions ofthe highest order transmission computed, where n is sufficiently large.Thus, as n→|S|, the union of the set of IVs appearing in the mostpredictive transmissions will probably approach S.

With these guidelines, a process for generating an approximation toS(S′) given the set V of significant IVs and the set D of all DVs, canbe presented.

In the following process (1-6), T_(k) will be used to denote the set oftransmissions of order k (containing k IVs) from a set of n features.

-   -   1. Calculate the transmissions, T_(k) for the highest order, k,        for which the (n/K) transmissions may be calculated.    -   2. Choose the m unique transmissions of the greatest magnitude        from T_(k) to be the base set for higher-order transmissions.    -   3. Generate T′_(k+1) by adding the IV to numbers of T_(k) which        generates the set T_(k+1) with the largest transmission values.        Note that T′_(k+1) is a subset of T_(k+1) since it contains only        those members of T_(k+1) which can be generated from T_(k) by        adding one independent variable to each transmission.    -   4. Discard any duplicate transmissions.    -   5. Repeat Steps 3 and 4 until χ² significance is exhausted.    -   6. Take the union of the variables appearing in as many of the        most predictive transmissions as is necessary to generate a set        of size |S|. This union is S′, the approximation of the set S.        Since |S| is unknown, this value is estimated. However,        0≦|S|≦|V|, so it is often feasible to experiment with the S′ for        each cardinality.

An issue raised by feature selection processes is the effect ofdependence between members of S′. This dependence may be viewed as theredundancy in the predictive content of the variables. One solutionproposed is to calculate the pairwise transmissions T(s′_(i):s′_(j)),between features s′_(i) and s′_(j) from a candidate S′. Features whichexhibit high dependence (high pairwise transmissions) are penalized withrespect to the likelihood of their inclusion in the final S′.

Dependence between features is dealt with implicitly in the processabove since such dependence will reduce the entropy, thereby reducingthe magnitude of the transmission between a set of features and the setof dependent variables. Highly redundant feature sets will have lowtransmission values relative to less redundant sets of the samecardinality and will therefore be less likely to contribute to S′.

While tenure in days is a discrete measure, the number of possiblestates makes it difficult to use the variable without transformationsince a large number of states makes the joint distribution sparse (highdf relative to the data population) and any transmissions calculatedstatistically insignificant. Since tenure is an ordered variable,applying a clustering algorithm was not problematic.

Clustering is a form of compression, so care can be taken to minimizeinformation loss. The clustering phase was guided by efforts to maximizethe entropy of the clustered variable within the confines of the needsof statistical significance.

Though transmission values did vary across clustering algorithms andgranularity, the results in terms of S′were consistent.

Transmissions were calculated by combining cluster analysis andinformation-theoretic analysis. For the video clerk data set (containing160 IVs) it was decided that the cardinality of the sets of IVs forwhich transmissions could be calculated was 4. From there, twoadditional orders of cardinality were calculated by supplementing the4th order transmissions (as described in step 3 of the process). Theunion of independent variables appearing in the largest transmissionswas taken to be S′. Experimentation with neural models using S′ ofdifferent cardinalities yielded the best results when |S′|=56.

An interesting aspect of the application questions chosen by the featureselection method was the mix of bio-data and psychometrics. Of the 56features used as inputs for the most successful model, 31 came from thebio-data section of the application and 25 came from the psychologicalassessment. Of particular interest was the “coupling” of certainbio-data and assessment questions. Such pairs would appear togetherthroughout the analysis of transmission over a range of cardinalities.(e.g., they would appear as a highly predictive pair and wouldsubsequently appear together in higher-order sets of IVs).

The synergistic effect between the two classes of question becameapparent when models were generated using exclusively one class or theother (using only psychometrics or only bio-data questions). Withcomparable numbers of inputs, these models performed significantly worsethan their more diverse counterparts. These results are particularlyinteresting since psychological assessments typically do not includeresponses from such diverse classes of questions.

In the example, the most successful neural model developed was a singlehidden layer, feed-forward neural network with 56 inputs (|S′|=56), slid40 hidden nodes. The network was trained using the conjugate gradientmethod. Of the total data set size of 2084, 1784 were allocated to thetraining set and 300 were “hold-out”.

The performance measures of behavioral prediction models can be measuredusing the correlation coefficient. For the neural model described, thecorrelation between prediction and actual tenure for the hold-out samplewas p=0.51. For comparison, a number of other models were generatedusing either no feature selection or alternate feature selectionmethods. These models used the same network architecture and trainingalgorithm. The best model generated using the entire data set (e.g., allfeatures), was a 160-90-1 configuration (160 inputs and 90 hidden layernodes) which achieved a maximum hold-out correlation of p=0.44.Alternate feature selection algorithms: genetic algorithms, and forwardand reverse stepwise regression, using the same number of features (56),failed to achieve a hold-out correlation better than p=0.47.

Information-theoretic feature selection is a viable and accurate methodof identifying predictors of job performance in employee selection. Thecapacity to identify non-linear and higher-order interactions ignored byother feature selection methods represents a significant technique inconstructing predictive models.

Alternatives

It should be understood that the programs, processes, or methodsdescribed herein are not related or limited to any particular type ofcomputer apparatus, unless indicated otherwise. Various types of generalpurpose or specialized computer apparatus may be used with or performoperations in accordance with the teachings described herein. Elementsof the illustrated embodiment shown in software may be implemented inhardware and vice versa. In view of the many possible embodiments towhich the principles of our invention may be applied, it should berecognized that the detailed embodiments are illustrative only andshould not be taken as limiting the scope of our invention. Rather, weclaim as our invention all such embodiments as may come within the scopeand spirit of the following claims and equivalents thereto.

1. An apparatus for assisting in determining the suitability of anindividual for employment by an employer, the apparatus comprising: anelectronic data interrogator operable to present a first set of aplurality of questions to the individual; an electronic answer captureroperable to electronically store the individual's responses to at leasta selected plurality of the first set of questions presented to theindividual; an electronic predictor responsive to the stored answers andoperable to predict at least one post-hire outcome if the individualwere to be employed by the employer, the predictor providing aprediction of the outcome based upon correlations of the stored answerswith answers to sets of questions by other individuals for whichpost-hire information has been collected; and an electronic resultsprovider providing an output indicative of the outcome to assist indetermining the suitability of the individual for employment by theemployer.
 2. An apparatus according to claim 1 wherein the post-hireoutcome indicates whether the individual is predicted to be eligible forre-hire after termination.
 3. (canceled)
 4. An apparatus according toclaim 1 wherein the post-hire outcomes indicate whether the individualis predicted to be involuntarily terminated and whether the individualis predicted to be eligible for re-hire after termination.
 5. (canceled)6. An apparatus according to claim 1 wherein at least one of thepredicted outcomes is a predicted value for a continuous variable. 7.(canceled)
 8. An apparatus according to claim 1 wherein the predictedoutcome indicates whether the individual will belong to a particulargroup.
 9. An apparatus according to claim 1 wherein at least one of thepredicted outcomes is a predicted ranking of the individual for theoutcome.
 10. An apparatus according to claim 1 wherein at least one ofthe predicted outcomes indicates a predicted employment tenure for theindividual.
 11. An apparatus according to claim 1 wherein at least oneof the predicted outcomes indicates a predicted number of accidents forthe individual.
 12. An apparatus according to claim 1 wherein at leastone of the predicted outcomes indicates a predicted sales level for theindividual.
 13. An apparatus according to claim 1 wherein the predictorcomprises an artificial intelligence-based prediction system.
 14. Anapparatus according to claim 1 wherein the data interrogator is locatedat a first location and the predictor is located at a second locationwhich is remote from the first location.
 15. An apparatus according toclaim 14 wherein the data interrogator and the predictor are selectivelyelectronically interconnected through a network.
 16. An apparatusaccording to claim 15 wherein the network is the worldwide web.
 17. Anapparatus according to claim 15 wherein the network is a telephonenetwork.
 18. (canceled)
 19. An apparatus according to claim 1 whereinthe first set of questions may be varied.
 20. An apparatus according toclaim 19 wherein the predictor is operable to determine and indicate alack of a correlation between one or more questions of the first set ofquestions and at least one of the predicted outcomes, whereby questionswhich lack the correlation may be discarded or modified.
 21. Anapparatus according to claim 1 wherein at least one of the predictedoutcomes is longevity with an employer and the answers to sets ofquestions by other individuals comprise answers by employees of theemployer for whom longevity has been determined.
 22. An apparatusaccording to claim 1 in which the predictor comprises at least one modelwhich provides a predictor of the probability of the individualexhibiting at least one of the predicted outcomes, the model being basedon correlations between the at least one of the predicted outcomes andthe answers to questions by the other individuals, including answers byat least some employees of the employer, the model taking at leastselected answers of the stored answers as inputs to the model, aprobability of the individual exhibiting the at least one of thepredicted outcomes being provided as an output of the model. 23.(canceled)
 24. An apparatus according to claim 1 wherein the predictoris responsive to the stored answers and operable to predict pluraloutcomes if the individual were to be employed by the employer.
 25. Amethod for assessing suitability of persons for employment based oninformation for hired employees, the method comprising: collectingpre-hire applicant information for hired employees before they arehired; collecting post-hire measures of the job effectiveness of hiredemployees; constructing an artificial intelligence model identifyingassociations of patterns within the pre-hire data associated withpatterns of job effectiveness in the post-hire data; collecting pre-hireinformation for a new applicant; and applying the artificialintelligence model to the pre-hire information for the new applicant toprovide a prediction of the new applicant's suitability for employment.26. The method of claim 25 further comprising: collecting post-hireinformation for the new applicant; and using at least the pre-hire andpost-hire information for the new applicant to refine the artificialintelligence model.
 27. The method of claim 25 further comprising:constructing at least one other artificial intelligence model of adifferent type; and assessing the relative effectiveness of theartificial intelligence models at predicting suitability of employeesfor employment based on actual employment effectiveness of employeeshired based on the models.
 28. An apparatus for assisting in determiningthe suitability of an individual for employment by an employer, theapparatus comprising: means for electronically presenting a first set ofa plurality of questions to the individual; means for electronicallystoring the individual's responses to at least a selected plurality ofthe first set of questions presented to the individual; responsive tothe stored answers, means for predicting at least one post-hire outcomeif the individual were to be employed by the employer, the means forpredicting providing a prediction of the outcome based upon correlationsof the at least one characteristic with answers to sets of questions byother individuals and the closeness of the stored answers to suchcorrelations; and means for providing an output indicative of theoutcome to assist in determining the suitability of the individual foremployment by the employer.
 29. An artificial intelligence-based systemfor predicting employee behaviors based on pre-hire informationcollected for the employee, the system comprising: an electronic devicefor presenting an employment application comprising a set of questionsto an employment candidate, wherein the electronic device is operable totransmit answers of the employment candidate to a central store ofemployee information, wherein the central store of employee informationcomprises information collected for a plurality of candidate employeesand a plurality of hired employees; an artificial intelligence-basedmodel constructed from information collected from the hired employeesbased on answers provided by the hired employees and employmentbehaviors observed for the hired employees; a software system forsupplying the answers of the employment candidate to the artificialintelligence-based model to produce predicted employment behaviors forthe employment candidate; and a report generator to produce a hiringrecommendation report for the employment candidate based on thepredicted employment behaviors of the employment candidate.
 30. Acomputer-implemented method of predicting employment performancecharacteristics for a candidate employee based on pre-hire informationcollected for hired employees, the method comprising: collecting dataindicating pre-hire information for a plurality of the hired employees;collecting data indicating post-hire outcomes for the hired employees;constructing an artificial intelligence-based model from the pre-hireinformation and the post-hire outcomes for the employees; from thecandidate employee, electronically collecting data indicating pre-hireinformation of the candidate employee; and applying the model to thecollected pre-hire information of the candidate employee to generate oneor more predicted post-hire outcomes for the candidate employee.
 31. Themethod of claim 30 wherein collecting data from the candidate employeecomprises electronically presenting a set of questions at an electronicdevice and electronically collecting answers to the questions at theelectronic device.
 32. The method of claim 30 wherein the pre-hireinformation comprises one or more pre-hire characteristics andconstructing the model comprises: identifying one or more pre-hirecharacteristics as ineffective predictors; and responsive to identifyingthe pre-hire characteristics as ineffective predictors, omitting theineffective predictors from the model.
 33. The method of claim 30further comprising: providing a report indicating applicant flow. 34.The method of claim 30 wherein constructing the model comprises:constructing a plurality of proposed models, wherein at least two of themodels are of different types; and selecting a superior proposed modelas the model to be used.
 35. (canceled)
 36. (canceled)
 37. (canceled)38. The method of claim 30 wherein at least one of the predictedpost-hire outcomes is denoted as a probability that a particular valuerange of a job effective measure will be observed for a candidateemployee.
 39. The method of claim 30 wherein at least one of thepredicted post-hire outcomes is denoted as a value for a continuousvariable.
 40. The method of claim 30 wherein at least one of thepredicted post-hire outcomes is denoted as a relative ranking for anoutcome.
 41. The method of claim 40 wherein the ranking is relative toother employment candidates.
 42. The method of claim 40 wherein theranking is relative to the hired employees.
 43. The method of claim 30further comprising: storing a relative importance of one or moreparticular post-hire outcomes; and generating automated hiringrecommendations based on the predicted post-hire outcomes for thecandidate employees and the importance of the post-hire outcomes. 44.The method of claim 30 further comprising: refining the model based onnewly-observed post-hire outcomes.
 45. The method of claim 30 whereinthe pre-hire information comprises answers to questions on a jobapplication, the method further comprising: identifying one or morequestions as ineffective predictors; responsive to identifying thequestions as ineffective predictors, modifying the job application byremoving the questions; collecting new pre-hire information foradditional candidate employees based on the modified job application;collecting new post-hire information for the additional candidateemployees; and constructing a refined artificial-intelligence modelbased on the additional pre-hire and post-hire information for theadditional candidate employees.
 46. The method of claim 45 furthercomprising: responsive to determining pre-hire and post-hire informationhas been collected for a sufficient number of additional employees,providing an indication that a refined model can be constructed.
 47. Themethod of claim 45 further comprising: providing a report indicating theidentified questions are ineffective predictors.
 48. The method of claim45 further comprising: adding one or more new questions to the modifiedjob application before collecting additional pre-hire information. 49.The method of claim 48 wherein the new questions are composed based onjob skills appropriate for a particular job related to the jobapplication.
 50. The method of claim 48 further comprising: evaluatingthe effectiveness of the new questions.
 51. An artificialintelligence-based employee performance prediction system comprising: aset of pre-hire characteristic identifiers; a set of post-hire outcomeidentifiers; a collection of data for employees, wherein the dataincludes values associated with the pre-hire identifiers and thepost-hire identifiers; and an artificial intelligence-based model chosenfrom a set of candidate models, the artificial intelligence-based modelexhibiting superior ability at predicting values associated with thepost-hire outcome identifiers based on values associated with thepre-hire characteristic identifiers in comparison to the other candidatemodels.
 52. A computer-readable medium having a collection ofemployment-related data, the data comprising: pre-hire information for aplurality of employees, wherein the pre-hire information comprisesinformation electronically-collected from an applicant, wherein theinformation comprises a plurality of pre-hire characteristics; post-hireinformation for at least some of the plurality of employees, wherein theinformation comprises a plurality of post-hire outcomes; and a datastructure identifying which of the pre-hire characteristics areeffective in predicting a set of one or more of the post-hire outcomesfor a job applicant.
 53. A method for providing an automated hiringrecommendation for a new potential employee, the method comprising:collecting pre-hire information for potential employees; storing thepre-hire information for the potential employees in a database; afterhiring a plurality of the potential employees, collecting employmentperformance information for at least some of the hired employees;storing the employment performance information collected from the hiredemployees; constructing an artificial intelligence-based model based oncorrelations between the pre-hire information and the employmentperformance information collected from one or more of the hiredemployees; collecting pre-hire information for a new potential employee;based on the artificial intelligence-based model, providing an automatedhiring recommendation for the new potential employee; after hiring thenew potential employee, collecting employment performance informationfor the new potential employee; adding the employment performanceinformation for the new potential employee to the database; andmodifying the artificial intelligence-based model based on the pre-hireand employment performance information for the new potential employee.54. A method for providing an automated hiring recommendation servicefor an employer, the method comprising: stationing a plurality ofelectronic devices at a plurality of employer sites, wherein theelectronic devices are operable to accept directly from one or more jobapplicants answers to questions presented at the electronic devices;sending the answers of at least one of the job applicants to a remotesite for analysis; applying an artificial intelligence-based predictivemodel to the answers of the least one of the job applicant to generatean automated hiring recommendation; and automatically sending the hiringrecommendation to the employer.
 55. An apparatus for assisting indetermining suitability of an individual for employment by an employer,the apparatus comprising: means for electronically presenting a firstset of a plurality of means for questioning to the individual; means forelectronically storing answers of the individual to at least a selectedplurality of the first set of means for questioning presented to theindividual; responsive to the stored answers, means for predicting atleast one post-hire outcome if the individual were to be employed by theemployer, the means for predicting providing a prediction of thepost-hire outcome based upon correlations of the stored answers withanswers to sets of questions by other individuals for which post-hireinformation has been collected; and means for providing an outputindicative of the post-hire outcome to assist in determining thesuitability of the individual for employment by the employer; whereinthe output indicative of the post-hire outcome indicates predictedabsenteeism for the individual.